A decade has passed since the National Crime Agency first identified a disturbing shift in how drugs were being supplied across the UK. What began as localised user-dealers serving their social circles has evolved into a sophisticated exploitation network that continues to trap thousands of young people and vulnerable adults.

The Birth of County Lines

In 2015, police forces outside London noticed an alarming pattern. Authorities were arresting young people and vulnerable adults far from their home areas, suspecting them of involvement in drug supply and links to criminal gangs. This marked the emergence of what authorities would come to call “county lines”.

The term refers to the dedicated phone or “deal” line used to organise the sale of drugs, primarily heroin and crack cocaine, from oversaturated urban markets to rural and coastal areas with less supply. Gang members based in exporter areas such as London and Liverpool controlled these operations, whilst exploited young or vulnerable people trafficked to importer areas like north Wales and Cornwall completed the actual drug sales.

The crossing of local authority and police boundaries made county lines drug dealing notoriously difficult to police and presented significant challenges for safeguarding victims of exploitation.

A Violent Reality

County lines operations involve extreme violence. The model encompasses gang violence, knife crime, sexual exploitation and what amounts to modern-day slavery. Vulnerable individuals caught up in these networks face threats, coercion and physical harm as standard operating procedures.

Jenna Carr, a sociology PhD researcher at the University of Liverpool, has been studying the development of county lines policy and responses over the past decade. Her research highlights how victims and perpetrators of exploitation are often one and the same person, creating complex situations that the criminal justice system struggles to address appropriately.

How County Lines Drug Dealing Has Evolved

Ten years on, the county lines model continues to adapt. A recent assessment by the National Police Chiefs’ Council reveals significant changes in how these operations function. The practice is becoming increasingly localised, with fewer lines running between different police force boundaries. Instead, operations now frequently run from one end of a force area to the other.

The scope has also expanded beyond class A substances. Police are now reporting seizures of cannabis, cash and weapons alongside the traditional heroin and crack cocaine associated with county lines drug dealing. This evolution has led researchers to question whether the term “county lines” itself remains appropriate, suggesting instead that terminology should focus more on the exploitation involved rather than just the drug supply method.

Who Gets Caught in the Web

The government estimates that 14,500 children are at risk of child criminal exploitation, though this figure is likely an underestimation. Those most vulnerable to recruitment into county lines typically share certain risk factors: being aged 15 to 17, experiencing neglect and abuse, facing economic vulnerability, suffering school exclusion, and having frequent episodes of going missing from home.

Vulnerable adults face particular risks through “cuckooing”, where gangs take over their homes as bases for drug supply operations. These individuals often lack the resources or support networks to resist such exploitation.

One of the most challenging aspects of responding to county lines drug dealing is that vulnerability can be difficult to recognise. Many victims refuse to cooperate with police due to fear of legal consequences and repercussions from their exploiters. Furthermore, those who have been exploited often do not accept that they are victims, believing instead that they are profiting financially and socially from their involvement.

The ongoing cost of living crisis has exacerbated the problem, drawing young and vulnerable people into county lines as a response to poverty and a lack of legitimate, financially viable opportunities.

The Response: More Harm Than Help?

Over the past decade, responses to county lines drug dealing have been predominantly led by law enforcement, with coordinated police crackdowns making headlines. However, research suggests that these high-profile operations are largely symbolic and have the unintended effect of drawing vulnerable people further into the criminal justice system, creating additional harm rather than providing protection.

One significant development has been the use of the Modern Slavery Act to prosecute county lines cases. Authorities intended this to offer legal defence for those exploited into selling drugs. Yet research shows that rather than acting as a safeguard, the Act has become a “gateway into criminalisation”. If someone crosses the perceived boundary from victim to perpetrator of exploitation, they can find the same legislation meant to protect them now subjects them to punitive criminal justice responses.

This approach has proven particularly harsh for black men and boys, who have historically faced more severe treatment in relation to drug crime, including through stop and search practices.

A Postcode Lottery of Support

The government does fund a specialist county lines victim support service, but only operates it in the four main exporter locations. This geographical limitation means that support for victims has become a postcode lottery. Police forces in importer areas often lack the resources to train officers adequately in dealing with complex county lines cases, and a consistent national approach remains elusive.

Looking Ahead: Prevention Over Punishment

The current government plans to make child criminal exploitation and cuckooing specific criminal offences through new legislation. Whilst child safety charities have celebrated this move, questions remain about whether more criminalisation should be the priority.

Research consistently shows that drug prohibition and punitive responses are ineffective at preventing young people and vulnerable adults from becoming involved in county lines drug dealing. The fundamental drivers remain unchanged: demand for drugs and structural issues such as poverty continue to fuel these operations, and policing alone cannot address these root causes.

A Call for a Different Approach

Instead of relying solely on punitive legal responses, experts argue that public health approaches and addressing drug demand should take priority. What’s needed is substantial investment in support services and social care, sectors that have been decimated by austerity cuts over the past decade.

The goal must be to build a society where vulnerable people do not need to become involved in drug supply to survive. This requires addressing poverty, improving educational opportunities, strengthening family support services, and ensuring that young people have access to legitimate pathways out of deprivation.

As we reflect on ten years since county lines drug dealing first emerged as a recognised phenomenon, the evidence is clear: criminalisation and enforcement-led responses have failed to stem the tide. If we don’t address the underlying social and economic factors that make vulnerable individuals susceptible to exploitation, the cycle will continue, no matter how many arrests we make or how harsh the penalties become.

The question facing policymakers is whether they have the courage to shift from a predominantly punitive approach to one that prioritises prevention, support and addressing the structural inequalities that allow county lines to flourish. After a decade of learning what doesn’t work, perhaps it’s time to try something fundamentally different.

Source: dbrecoveryresources